Social play in wild brown bears of varying age-sex class

Social play behaviour is a well-described phenomenon, almost ubiquitous among mammals. Despite its prevalence, social play takes several forms and may vary in function across species. For solitary species, the function of play outside of the family group remains unclear. Here, we describe the motor patterns of play among non-littermate wild brown bears Ursus arctos of different age-sex class. Play was documented during a time of abundant food availability in three different scenarios: play among non-littermate subadults, play among non-littermate cubs, and play among a ‘group’ of bears of different age and sex class. We used a previously described behavioural ethogram to recognise play. Play followed typical motor patterns and postures expressed by bears during play-fighting: relaxed face, puckered-lip, ears partially flattened to crescent, wrestling, jaw gaping, play-biting, paw-swatting, and lunging. No vocalisations were conducted during play bouts. Older bears displayed ‘self-handicapping’ and ‘role-reversal’ in the play postures they selected when playing with younger bears, suggesting that tactics vary according to age class and dominance ranking. Playing likely allows for the evaluation of conspecifics in a non-aggressive way during times of reduced competition and could also relieve stress in complex social situations

Inter-sexual and inter-seasonal differences in the chemical signalling strategies of brown bears

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a species which, due to its solitary, dominance hierarchy social system and large home range, is thought to rely heavily on chemical signals as a means of communication. Through camera traps orientated towards bear ‘rub trees’ over a two-year period, we assessed the proportional contribution of scent marking in different seasons by different age sex classes, and gained insights into the role of chemical signalling in maintaining social structure. We found, during the breeding season (June-July), that both adult males (n=38 P1 year (n=11 P=0.003) scent marked trees significantly more often than expected, whereas lone adult females (n=7) and subadults (n=3) marked less than expected. Outside of the breeding season (August-October), adult males (n=70) marked in an expected proportion, females with cubs (all ages) marked significantly more than expected (n=71 P<0.001), and lone adult females (n=11) and subadults (n=15) marked less than expected. During both the breeding season (n=7 P=0.026) and the fall (n=11 P<0.001), adult females marked trees significantly less than their occurrence on bear trails would expect, as did subadults during the breeding season (n=3 P=0.026) but not during the fall (n=15). Adult males marked at significantly high frequencies both during and outside of the breeding season, potentially to communicate dominance between males. Supported by the low frequency of scent marking by subadults. We observed a total avoidance of bear trails containing active rub trees by females with cubs <1 year during the breeding season, a possible counterstrategy to sexually selected infanticide due to the strong male bias in scent marking during the breeding season. We hypothesize that scent marking in brown bears is taught by the mother, beginning with cubs <1 year outside of the breeding season at a relatively ‘safe’ time of year

Using Markov Chain Analysis to assess stereotyped scent marking behaviour in wild brown bears

Members of the order Carnivora employ a wide range of postures and stereotyped patterns to mark their scent onto objects, and therein communicate with conspecifics. Despite much anecdotal evidence on the marking behaviour of Ursids, empirical data examining marking patterns displayed by wild populations is lacking. Situated on the west coast of British Columbia (2009-2011), we used trail cameras stationed at marking trees to investigate scent marking and investigatory behaviour by wild brown bears Ursus arctos. Transitions between postures were assessed using Markov Chain Analysis. Results showed that scent marking patterns varied by age and sex; adult males exhibited a cyclic pattern of marking behaviour which included ‘core’ and ‘secondary’ postures, whereas adult females failed to exhibit any subset postures. The behaviour of subadults (sexes combined) was a variation and simplification of the patterns displayed by adult males and females. The wider variety of marking postures selected by adult males may convey a more complex signal, relating to the function of scent marking in the species. Females with young were classified separately to assess potential similarities/differences in the behaviour of all members of the family group. Using a simplified ethogram, we found the behaviour of cubs to be dependent on their age and the behaviour of their mother. Younger cubs were more likely to conduct the same behaviour as their mother, whereas older cubs exhibited behaviours independently. This study presents the first detailed description of the development of scent marking behaviour by cubs in the Ursidae

Assessing the scent marking behaviour of wild brown bears: an exploration of time and energy investment, motor patterns and age-related development

Members of the order Carnivora employ a wide range of postures and stereotyped patterns to mark their scent onto objects and thereby communicate with conspecifics. Despite much anecdotal evidence on the marking behaviour of ursids, empirical evidence of scent marking motor patterns displayed by wild populations is lacking. Analysing the time bears spend at marking trees and the behaviours involved, could provide further insight into the function of marking and highlight time and energy investment. Over a three year period, camera traps stationed at marking trees were used to investigate scent marking and investigatory behaviour by wild brown bears Ursus arctos in coastal British Columbia. This work follows on from data presented at the 18th, 19th & 20th IBA conferences

Food availability affects the scent marking frequencies of wild brown bears

For many species, chemical signalling is used to signal the competitive ability of individuals and therefore plays an important role in the breeding system. As breeding generally promotes intrasexual competition, the potential fitness costs associated with competitive behaviour may be mitigated if individuals are able to assess their own ability, and the competitive ability of others, prior to agonistic encounters. Due to their hierarchical social structure and large home-range size, bears (Ursidae) are thought to rely highly on olfactory methods of communication. Through camera traps orientated towards bear ‘rub trees’ over a three-year period, we have begun to establish the function of strategic tree selectivity and the social function of marking behaviour for brown bears Ursus arctos in the Glendale drainage, British Columbia. We hypothesised that marking trees function to signal competitive ability between individuals, with dominant individuals signalling their high competitive ability and receivers detecting these cues and modifying their behaviour accordingly. Here, we provide evidence to further these hypotheses by demonstrating how scent marking frequencies vary in relation to food availability

Management to conserve biodiversity is likely to increase soil carbon storage in upland Atlantic oakwoods in the United Kingdom

The objective of this research was to determine whether fencing to exclude grazing from upland woodlands to facilitate the natural regeneration of trees is likely to increase soil carbon storage. Permanent sample plots were established along a transect through Young Wood, the highest Atlantic oakwood in England, immediately prior to fencing and exclusion of sheep in autumn 2008. Plots outside the wood contained either heather (Calluna vulgaris), bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), gorse (Ulex europaeus), wavy hair grass (Deschampsia flexuousa) or mixtures of these species. The wood is 99% sessile oak (Quercus petraea) with woodland ground flora such as heath bedstraw (Galium saxatile). Soil samples were analysed for carbon and nitrogen content. Results indicated that more carbon is stored in soil under the oaks than in either heather, bilberry, gorse, grass or mixtures of these species. In conclusion, this study showed that fencing and excluding grazing to conserve Atlantic oakwoods at their altitudinal limit in the United Kingdom is likely to have a carbon mitigation benefit as well as protecting and enhancing the biodiversity for which the management was initially intended

Using camera traps to study behaviour in wild populations: a case study of the brown bear Ursus arctos

Research on endangered species often relies on behavioural information to acquire data throughout a range of fields. The demographics of a population can be directly measured, yet the study of social behaviour, plasticity, and interactions is somewhat restricted. Brown bears are a species which, due to their solitary and wide-ranging ecology, are thought to rely heavily on chemical signals as a means of communication. Conducted off the west-coast of British Columbia, Canada, we used camera traps orientated towards bear marking trees to assess behavioural differences between age/sex classes, and by season, to interpret the function of chemical signalling in the species. With camera trapping technology advancing, we are now better equipped to study animal behaviour in less invasive ways in the field. By developing techniques we have been able to study complex interactions and behaviours not possible of bears in captivity. Non-invasive methods used in population assessment (e.g. DNA from hair snares) have begun to make use of scent marking behaviour. However, prior knowledge of the relationship between these sites and the species being studied is required to allow for better estimates to be derived, by accounting for behavioural bias in sampling

“Peas in a pod”: Oral History Reflections on Autistic Identity in Family and Community by Late-Diagnosed Adults

In this paper, we report on a participatory oral history study documenting the lives of late-diagnosed autistic adults in Australia. We interviewed 26 autistic adults about their life history and the impact of late diagnosis. All were diagnosed after the age of 35, growing up in an era when autism was not well known. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we uncovered a rich body of reflections on shared Autistic identity and identified three major themes within that data set: 'conceptualising the Autistic family', 'creating Autistic community', and 'contesting Autistic identity'. Overall, the study provides insights into the active creation of shared Autistic identity and the importance of Autistic community to these late-diagnosed autistic adults

Paleobiology Database User Guide Version 1.0

The Paleobiology Database is an online, non-governmental, non-profit public resource for paleontological data. It is organized and operated by a multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional, international group of paleobiological researchers. This volume is designed to be a comprehensive guide for Paleobiology Database users, both General and Contributory. It covers most database uses from data retrieval and mapping to data contribution of all types. It contains numerous examples to illustrate database use as well as definitions of terms and additional links to numerous other sources. We hope that this user guide will help all users access the great volume of data in the Paleobiology Database and lead others to start and continue to add data to the system

A hypothetico-deductive approach to assessing the social function of chemical signalling in a non-territorial solitary carnivore

The function of chemical signalling in non-territorial solitary carnivores is still relatively unclear. Studies on territorial solitary and social carnivores have highlighted odour capability and utility, however the social function of chemical signalling in wild carnivore populations operating dominance hierarchy social systems has received little attention. We monitored scent marking and investigatory behaviour of wild brown bears Ursus arctos, to test multiple hypotheses relating to the social function of chemical signalling. Camera traps were stationed facing bear ‘marking trees’ to document behaviour by different age sex classes in different seasons. We found evidence to support the hypothesis that adult males utilise chemical signalling to communicate dominance to other males throughout the non-denning period. Adult females did not appear to utilise marking trees to advertise oestrous state during the breeding season. The function of marking by subadult bears is somewhat unclear, but may be related to the behaviour of adult males. Subadults investigated trees more often than they scent marked during the breeding season, which could be a result of an increased risk from adult males. Females with young showed an increase in marking and investigation of trees outside of the breeding season. We propose the hypothesis that females engage their dependent young with marking trees from a young age, at a relatively ‘safe’ time of year. Memory, experience, and learning at a young age, may all contribute towards odour capabilities in adult bears